Mongolia

Every laboratory member is actively involved in researches with focus on Mongolia, Laos, and Asia-Pacific region. Please view the following section for individual research topics in Mongolia.

Research Activities in Mongolia

Research in Mongolia are centered around teachers and school leaders. The figure below summarizes the recent research in Mongolia. For teachers, the research has been focusing on introducing interactive materials to support self-development, and analysis of its sustainability. For school leaders, the research has been focusing on the factors affecting their attitude towards the use of ICT in education. With policy advancements and improvements in infrastructure, current research is trying to identify potential changes in factors affecting school leaders’ attitude towards ICT in education. Furthermore, research is being conducted on the local interpretation on innovative use of ICT, and the diffusion of innovation.

Diffusion of ICT practice using teacher portal (Bagshin Khujil) (2017 –, Yuji Hirai)

1. Background / Research objective

Diffusion process of innovative practices has been investigated using Diffusion of Innovation (DoI) theory (Rogers, 2003). The areas of application range from commercial, agriculture, medical to educational sector. Particularly with regard to diffusion studies in educational domain, an integration of ICT tools and practices such as the introduction of computer, Internet, e-learning, m-learning and educational portal were paid attention.

In Mongolia, integration of ICT in education have been promoted by educational policies since 2000 to realize localized and student centered education as well as to overcome dispersed school locations in the vast country. Recent policy put focus more on introducing ICT to improve teachers’ teaching practices at school level. Among variety of ICT tools introduced to teachers, the national level teacher portal (Bagshin Khujil) was identified as an Innovative ICT use by lower secondary school teachers. Although benefits of using the teacher portal were recognized by teachers, uneven distribution of practice using teacher portal among lower secondary school teachers is observed. For example around 70% of lower secondary school teachers have not yet participating in uploading their own materials. Therefore, this study aims to understand diffusion process of teacher portal use among lower secondary school teachers in Mongolia. Also factors influencing diffusion process will be identified. This study is expected to provide theoretical support for designing continuous and inclusive support for spreading teachers’ educational use of ICT.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

To be updated

3. Findings

To be updated

Analyzing Changes in  Factors Affecting Primary School Leaders’ Attitude Toward ICT in Case of Mongolia (2017 – Present, Fatemeh Hassani)

1. Background / Research objective

In 1990s Mongolian education sector experienced educational reforms. The Mongolian government has made efforts to address the need for change in the education system of Mongolia through the implementation of policy, especially for the rural area. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Science, and Sports (MECSS) of Mongolia formulated a series of ICT in education policies during the past two decades for raising the quality of education. Therefore, there is a need to raise the quality of teaching in schools with the use of ICT. However, there is a lack of teacher training using ICT in Mongolia. School leaders also play crucial roles in implementing the teacher training program. Therefore, in order to implement high-quality teacher training activities, it is important to identify factors that influence school leaders’ perception and their attitude toward ICT. This study aims to understand the factors affecting school leaders’ attitude towards the use of ICT in education. Further, this study explores the chronological changes occurred in the attitude of school leaders toward ICT within five years. Reflecting research objective, two research questions are formulated. First, what are the factors affecting school leaders’ attitude towards ICT in the education of Mongolia? Second, what are the school leaders’ attitude changes between 2012 and 2017?

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

This study implements the correlational design to examine the associations among factors affecting school leaders’ attitude towards ICT in education. In order to answer the first research question, this study utilizes impact survey data of 2016. A total of 158 primary school leaders and training managers from five different regions in Mongolia responded to the survey. In order to answer the second research question, the study employs the baseline survey data of 2012 and impact survey data of 2016 to make the comparison on changes in school leaders’ attitude toward ICT between two years.

3.  Findings

To be updated

Study on Self-Regulated Learning Processes for Professional Development using ICT: A Case of Primary School Teachers in Mongolia (2017 – present, Yiqiong Mai)

1. Background / Research objective

ICT integration has been a long focus of teachers’ professional development in Mongolia. Because of the disperse population and lack of opportunities for teachers to gain professional training, self-regulated learning (SRL) plays an important role in teachers’ professional development. In support of school-based teacher development, interactive web-based teacher training materials were introduced to primary school teachers in Mongolia in 2016. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of interactive learning materials on SRL processes and learning outcomes of primary school teachers. It also explores the chronological changes occurred in the effect of interactive materials on SRL processes.

Pintrich summarized the general SRL framework that contains four phases of self-regulated learning. He also pointed out the relationship between the motivation construction and SRLprocesses. ^[1]Based on Pintrich’s study, Li applied the modified SRL model in Mongolian context. His model adopted learning satisfaction and intentions to apply acquired knowledge to measure the learning outcomes. The study identified three SRL processes, internal motivation, critical and positive thinking skills, and planning and organizing skills, that positively affected the teachers’ learning satisfaction. Teachers used interactive materials shown higher motivation for better assessment as well as higher learning satisfaction and intention to apply learning contents. ^[2]

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

Reflecting the findings of Li’s study, this study further explores the SRL processes 18 months after introducing the interactive materials. Two research questions are formulated. First, what are the SRL processes affecting the learning outcomes of the primary school teachers in Mongolia in 2017? Second, what are the differences of factors affecting the teachers’ learning outcomes between 2016 and 2017? Survey was conducted to answer these research questions. There are two groups of teachers in this study. The experimental group conducted the teacher training with training videos, guidelines, and interactive materials, while the control group only utilized the videos and guidelines.

A total of 247 primary school teachers from Gobi region in Mongolia responded to the survey. The data analysis was carried out in four steps: 1) to conduct the Principal Component Analysis to identify SRL processes and outcomes; 2) to conduct Mann-Whitney U test to investigate the differences of SRL processes and outcomes between the two groups of teachers; 3) to conduct linear multiple regression to analyze the influence of SRL processes on learning outcomes; 4) and to compare the results of survey conducted in 2016 and in 2017.

3. Preliminary Findings

There are three findings in this study. First, teacher’s learning outcomes are measured by learning satisfaction and intentions to apply learning contents as well as post-training efficacy. For the learning satisfaction, it was found to be significantly affected by self-efficacy for learning and performance along with elaborating and organizing skills. Further, self-efficacy for learning and performance together with motivation for better assessment showed significant influence on post-training efficacy. Second, no significant difference was found in SRL processes between the groups of teachers who did professional development with and without interactive materials. Third, changes are found in factors affecting teachers’ learning satisfaction between the use of interactive materials in 2016 and 2017. 1) internal motivation as well as critical and positive thinking skills, which were found to positively affect the learning satisfaction in 2016, were dropped; 2) the other positive affecting factor, planning and organizing skills, changed to elaborating and organizing skills; 3) the new factor, self-efficacy for learning and performance was found to have positive influence. For further study, this study will continue exploring reasons of the changes.

Reference:

[1] Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 451-502).

[2] Li, S., Yamaguchi, S., & Takada, J. I. (2018). The Influence of Interactive Learning Materials on Self-Regulated Learning and Learning Satisfaction of Primary School Teachers in Mongolia. Sustainability, 10(4), 1093.

Please find the relevant resources below.

• Poster

Self-Regulated Learning using interactive learning materials (2015 – 2018, Shengru Li)

1. Background / Research objective

Self-regulated learning (SRL) refers to the self-generated thoughts, motivations, and actions to support and guide one’s learning. Among many researchers in this domain, Pintrich has developed the SRL model that was widely applied in different contexts such as student learning, medical professional development, and teacher training. Self-regulated learning is relevant to in-service teacher training as teachers face the need to continuously improve themselves reflecting the rapid changes in the society. In the vast country of Mongolia where schools are scattered, school-based teacher training plays a particularly important role to facilitate professional development of teachers.

The continuous in-service training requires Mongolian primary school teachers to be motivated to learn and incorporate different pedagogies into their teaching. Teachers also need to reflect their professional practices, discuss and collaborate with peers to solve issues, and create environment to conduct self-development. This study in Mongolia focused on exploring teachers’ self-learning using self-regulated learning theory. There are two research objectives: 1) identify important self-regulation processes that affect teachers’ learning outcome; and 2) find out the influence of interactive materials on teachers’ learning in self-development based on self-regulated learning (SRL) theory.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

To support teachers’ self-development at school level, interactive training materials were co-produced with Mongolian educational experts for primary school subjects in 2016. Primary school teachers in Gobi Region utilized three teacher training materials for six months. In September, 2016, data were collected using the localized MSLQ survey to identify SRL processes and learning outcomes from 285 primary school teachers in two groups, those who utilized interactive learning materials and those who did not. Through preparatory data analysis, six latent variables were created. Five variables correspond with SRL processes: 1) internal motivation, 2) motivation for better assessment, 3) planning and organizing skills, 4) critical and positive thinking skills, and 5) effort regulation. One variable, learning satisfaction and intention to apply learning contents, correspond with learning outcome. Three statistical methods were applied in this study which include 1) multiple linear regression to identify SRL processes affecting learning outcome, 2) t-test and u-test to compare differences in SRL processes and learning outcome between two groups of teachers, and 3) moderation analysis to understand the effect of interactive materials on the influence of SRL processes on learning outcome.

3. Findings

There are three interesting findings based on data analysis results. First, multiple linear regression analysis showed that among five factors, internal motivation, planning and organizing skills, and critical and positive thinking skills are positively affecting learning satisfaction. Second, t-test revealed that motivation for better assessment and learning satisfaction are higher for teachers utilizing interactive materials. Third, moderation analysis demonstrated that the influences of internal motivation and motivation for better assessment on learning satisfaction are stronger for teachers utilizing interactive materials. These findings were verified with local primary school teachers and teachers provided examples to support the results. These results are expected to contribute to the further development of interactive materials for teacher development in Mongolia.

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Research abstract

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Factors related to school leaders’ positive perception on the ICT integrated education (2015 – 2016, Yukiko Yamamoto)

1. Background / Research Objective

The ways of accessing, organize, and sharing knowledge has dramatically changed in last few decades, and this has also influenced our teaching practice in the world. With this trend, the utilization of ICT in education has been emphasized to improve school leaderships to promote the quality of education. In 2000, Mongolian parliament ratified ICT- Vison 2010 as a blueprint of the strategy, and education was placed as one of the target sectors to achieve “Efficient ICT” integration. Although the factor influencing ICT utilization in school can be complex, one of the factors is an attitude of school leaders toward ICT integrated education. The purpose of this study is to find the factors impacting school leader’s positive perceptions on ICT integrated education. More specifically, the study looks at the three types of school leaders’ perceptions on the ICT contributions in the practice (contribution to professional development of the teachers, students’ work, and teaching quality). It also investigates how four different areas of factor domains (demographic factors, teacher training factors, environmental factors, and leadership factors) are related to each other.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

The quantitative data was retrieved from the baseline survey on “Quality Improvement of

Primary Education Teachers through Development of Training Materials Using ICT”, which was

conducted in 2012 in Mongolia. A stratified sampling was employed to cover various characteristics of the country. Four provinces (Hovd, Bayankhongor, Selenge, and Khentii) and two districts from Ulaanbaatar were included to this study. A total of 222 principals and training managers responded to the survey. In addition, qualitative data was collected through the interviews with school leaders. The pairwise correlation coefficient was calculated to assess the relationships between each types of school leader’s perceptions and total of 23 factor-measures within the above-mentioned four domains of factors.

3. Findings

Based on the analysis result, the study had two findings. First, school leaders’ positive perceptions on the contribution of the ICT in school are related to how they run their schools, either through setting up environment or showing the directions to teachers. Second, securing funding, especially for ICT training is the critical factor; while it is one of the biggest challenges that school leaders face. The study suggested that demonstrating comprehensive benefits of the ICT in education and having some authority for allocating funding would help improve school environment for ICT integrated education.

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Research abstract

Conference presentation

School leaders’ attitudes toward ICT use in education (2014 – 2016, Ohya Yusuke)

1. Background / Research Objective

There are multiple studies arguing that school leaders’ support are essential for successful ICT integration into teaching and other school activities. Under the policy guidance to integrate ICT into basic education in Mongolia, school leaders are playing pivotal roles in promoting the use of ICT on the local school level. Along with these trends, responsibility of school leaders increased and their perception of ICT became more important to integrate ICT in school settings. However, there are limited studies focusing on school leaders’ attitudes on ICT and its affecting factors. This study aims to explore the factors that affect the attitudes of primary school leaders in Mongolia toward ICT in education.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

This study adopts mixed method approach. As for the quantitative part, data were retrieved from the baseline survey of “Quality Improvement of Primary Education Teachers Through Development of Training Materials Using ICT (2012-2017)” project funded by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). A total of 222 school principals and training managers from 5 different regions responded to the survey. For data analysis, descriptive analysis, exploratory factor analysis, and multiple regression analysis were conducted. For the qualitative part, semi-structured interview was conducted to verify the outcomes of quantitative analysis.

3. Findings

The result of multiple regression analysis indicates the following two findings. First, teacher

cooperation is the strongest predictor of school leaders’ attitudes toward ICT. School culture that teachers cooperate and share their experiences is positively affecting their attitudes. Second, ICT infrastructure has statistical significance as independent variables to explain school leaders’ attitudes. School leaders’ level of agreement on availability of ICT resources also positively affects their attitudes towards ICT in education. Further, this study also revealed that other factors including school leaders’ age, school location, and availability of ICT specialist are not found to be significant factors. These findings are expected to help policy makers in Mongolia to develop effective education policies.

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Research abstract

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Thesis

Teachers’ self-efficacy in using ICT for education (2014, Yukiko Yamamoto)

1. Background / Research Objective

Use of the ICT in education has received attention in different regions of the world for improving the quality of education, and this is no exception in Mongolia. In 2000, Mongolian parliament ratified ICT-Vision 2010 as a blueprint of the strategy, and education is the one of the target sectors that the government aims to achieve “Efficient ICT integration”. Responding to this initiative, the utilization of ICT in education has received much attention as an important tool for improving the quality of education, as well as promoting sustainable capacity-building in Mongolia. When promoting ICT utilization in developing regions, the most studies investigate from external factors, such as availability of the infrastructure, hard/software, and technical skills. This study, however, investigates from the view point of an internal factor, the teacher’s self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a belief or judgement of own capability to execute given type of performance, and it influences if people think erratically or strategically, optimistically or pessimistically in a specific context. This study intends to identify factors affecting self-efficacy of the primary school teachers in Mongolia and it attempts to interpret the teaching practices within the framework of the cognitive psychology.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

The quantitative data covering 838 primary school teachers were retrieved from the baseline survey on “Quality Improvement of Primary Education Teachers through Development of Training Materials Using ICT”, which was conducted in 2012. The pairwise correlation coefficient was calculated to assess the relationships between three types of perceived self-efficacy (confidence, competency and satisfaction.) and two education aspects, teacher training activities and practical ICT experience at school level. The correlation analysis was also supplemented by the qualitative data which was collected through the focus group discussions add a depth in the analysis.

3. Findings

The study found that perceived influence of school-based training had the strongest correlation among teacher training activities. It also found that positive institutional attitude toward ICT integrated education is vital to teacher’s self-efficacy. Based on the findings, following points were implied to increase or maintain teacher’s higher self-efficacy: 1) school-based teacher training activities, especially related to ICT integrated education, should be given a priority; and 2) sessions to understand the pedagogical value of ICT should be included in management level training. Further, the analysis results also suggested that the hours of preparations were not significantly related to any of the self-efficacy measure; however, the data from focus group discussions suggested that the preparation was very important factors for a confident performance in the class. The hours of preparation may not be an appropriate measure to assess the quality of the preparation; however, further investigation may be needed for this disagreement.

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Research abstract

Conference presentation

Factors affecting teachers’ perception on use of ICT for student-centered education (2013 – 2015, Shengru Li)

1. Background / Research Objective

Teachers’ perceptions on the use of ICT for student-centered education are vital for teachers to plan and conduct student-centered lessons. Since late 1990s through educational reform, Mongolian education policies introduced student-centered education (SCE). Specifically, Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (MECS) issued “New Education Standard” in 2003 to promote the concept of student-centered education in school curriculum. Further, “Master Plan to Develop Education of Mongolia in 2006 – 2015” formulated policies to implement ICT in education. This Master Plan emphasized the utilization of ICT for teacher training programs to promote ICT integration into classroom teaching. With the growing trend in introducing ICT in educational activities, this study aimed to understand the factors affecting factors teachers’ perceptions on use of ICT for SCE as there lacks the evidence in this field in Mongolian context.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

The study utilized the data from the survey conducted in JICA funded project “Quality improvement of primary education teachers through development of training materials using ICT.” The survey covers four provinces and the capital city representing local characteristics of five regions in Mongolia with 838 respondents. Two dependent variables were identified reflecting research objective: 1) Perception on use of ICT tool for SCE, and 2) Perception on use of digital contents for SCE. Factor analysis was utilized to support the categorization of question items. As a result, 23 items out of 30 potential items were categorized into seven latent variables. The naming for these latent variables were decided upon the consultation with educational experts, namely, 1) professional competency (PC), 2) Supportive school environment for ICT integration (SE), 3) quality of school computers (QSC), 4) teacher cooperation (TC), 5) benefits on use of ICT (BICT), 6) available time for use of ICT in education (T), and 7) resistance to change (RC). Multiple regression analysis was applied to find out what

are the factors affecting teachers’ belief on use of ICT for SCE. Twelve independent variables which includes seven latent variables and six demographic variables were included in analysis. Two regression models were established using on two dependent variables.

3. Findings

There were three major findings based on the data analysis results. First, professional competency of teachers was found to be a factor influencing both teachers’ perception on use of ICT tool for SCE and teachers’ perception on use of digital contents for SCE. Second, the study found that teachers’ perception of benefits on use of ICT also affects both teachers’ perception on use of ICT tool for SCE and teachers’ perception on use of digital contents for SCE. Third, the study finding supports that teacher cooperation affects teachers’ perceptions on use of digital contents for SCE.

This study has contributed to the understanding of the factors affecting Mongolian primary school teachers’ perception on use of ICT tools and digital contents for student-centered education. Reflecting the study findings, it is expected that educational practitioners design teacher training programs that conveys the clear benefits in using ICT for classroom teaching activities. Such training activities may effectively promote teachers’ positive perception on use of ICT for student-centered education.

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Research abstract

Thesis presentation

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Factors contributing to teachers’ use of ICT in education (2012 – 2014, Oyun Tsoghaikhan)

1. Background / Research Objective

Since 1990s, Mongolian education system experienced democratization and decentralization. In the recent decade, the Mongolian Government has been providing better ICT infrastructure to offer more opportunities for national development. At the time of this study, the primary and secondary school teachers are expected to know how to integrate ICT in school context. However, there is a limited number of studies conducted to understand how the teachers are integrating ICT into their teaching and other school activities. The series of education reform,

particularly emphasizing the importance of the development of teaching skills, include ICT use in education. Given this background, the research objectives are twofold: 1) to develop an instrument to measure teachers’ use of ICT in Mongolian context; and 2) to investigate factors affecting teachers’ use of ICT of primary school teachers in teaching and other activities in Mongolia.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

To investigate the factors affecting on teachers’ use of ICT in teaching, National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers (NETS-T) was used to localize its instrument in Mongolian context together with Mongolian education experts. The revised instrument was employed as questionnaires for 571 primary school teachers in Mongolia. Factor analysis was conducted to identify two main categories of ICT usage, namely, “Communication” and “IT usage”. Following the factor analysis, multiple regression analysis was utilized to find the factors affecting the ICT usage of primary school teachers.

3. Findings

The study confirmed that nine factors are associated with teachers’ ICT integration in Mongolia. As for the school level factors, school location, access to the internet at school and school support were found to have significant association. Among these influencing factors, the analysis found the school support is the strongest determinant for both teachers’ use of ICT for teaching and communication. As for the teacher level factors, teachers’ positive perception, training attendance, frequency of using computer per week, access to the internet at home, teachers’ years of teaching and teachers’ title were found to have significant association with teachers’ ICT integration in Mongolia. These findings have important policy implications for local government and school administrators to develop more effective ICT implementation and teacher training at school level in Mongolia.

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Research abstract

Thesis presentation

Student-Centered Education using ICT (2011 – 2014, Yano Shotaro)

1. Background / Research Objective

In the early 1990s, Mongolia experienced decentralization and democratization of its government, along with a transition to a free market economy. The education sector also encountered problems such as a fall in the education budget, decreasing literacy rate, urban migration of rural teachers, and also inadequate infrastructure. As a result, the Mongolian government enacted several policies to address these issues. In 2005 the New Education Standard was introduced to promote student-centered approach, a methodology to make students engaged more in their learning as opposed to a teacher-centered approach. By 2012, the Mongolian government amended the Education Law to encourage the sector to use ICT for further improvement of education quality. However, the clear definitions of student-centered approach have not been shared in Mongolian context. Therefore, this study aimed to 1) identify the key-factors of student-centered approach on Mongolian context and 2) illustrate how lessons using ICT tools contribute to promoting a student-centered approach in primary schools in Mongolia.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

The research consists of three components. First is clarification of the definition of

student-centered approach in Mongolian context. The study was conducted to identify the important factors of student-centered approach using both questionnaire and interview analysis. The professional staff of JICA identified historical information on history and definition of “student-centered approach”. Then four professors of Mongolian State University of Education confirmed definition, practices and difficulties of student-centered approach. Further, potential key-factors of student-centered approach were extracted based on the results of these interviews and survey results. In addition, questionnaire was conducted to clarify the definition of student-centered approach among schools. Second, in the analysis on the current state of use of ICT tools during the implementation of student-centered teaching. Various ICT tools (Computer, LCD Projector, Digital Camera, Video Player, Audio Player, TV, Radio, Power Point, Word, Excel, Scratch and Movie Maker) were evaluated for their usage, effectiveness, and issues through the questionnaire and focus group discussion. This study utilized the classroom observation to know how teacher implement student-centered teaching and the use of Scratch teaching materials through lesson assessment sheet. In total 29 teachers in Bayankhongor and 20 teachers in Ulaanbaatar observed lesson using Scratch.

3. Findings

This study was the first study to define what “student-centered” approach in Mongolian context. The analysis was conducted to identify the relationship between the types of educational activities and the student-centered education. First, in terms of defection, student-centered approach in Mongolia emphasizes on developing students’ creativity, self-learning abilities, and problem-solving skills through interesting and innovative classroom activities. Second, teachers consider that use of ICT tools support student-centered approach, especially, as visualized teaching materials (PowerPoint, Movie Maker, Scratch) can increase students’ interest. Third, teaching materials using Scratch produced by teachers is useful as local materials can be effectively employed to further interest students. As a result, this study identified specific definition of “students-centered teaching” in Mongolian context. It was found that teachers have positive perception on the use of ICT tools into teaching and various ICT tools are effective to enhance student-centered approach. ICT use in teaching in current Mongolian primary schools has potential for further development.

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Thesis

One-to-One Learning (2011 – 2013, John Auxillos)

1. Background / Research Objectives

Technology-intensive learning where each student has a computer as part of his/her package of learning materials, also called one-to-one learning, was becoming popular among the education community around the world in early 2000s. The One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) is a non- profit organization lead and founded by Nicholas Negroponte that aims at improving the quality of primary education for underserved children guided by the constructivist learning theory by designing, manufacturing and selling low-cost large-volume rugged laptops to governments. As of 2012, OLPC claimed to have distributed two million XO1 laptops to 36 countries. In Mongolia, the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) initiative was piloted in 50 schools distributing 1200 XO computers since 2008 and the laboratory members had studied the experiences, lessons, and issues of teachers, school administrators and local-level education specialists to further understand how child development is changing with the availability of computers. Reflecting this background, this research aims at finding out the impact of OLPC on student learning achievement.

2. Methodology and Data Analysis

The study was conducted in 2012 covering 14 primary schools, of which 7 received XO computers and other 7 did not receive XOs. The schools were located in four provinces and two districts of Ulaanbaatar city of Mongolia. Over 2,000 5th grade students in these 14 schools were tested on Math and Reading skills, based on items from the 2008 National Primary Education Assessment. In addition to these tests, students were asked to respond to a questionnaire, which consisted of demographic and ICT-related questions and computer attitude
measure for young student instrument.

The quasi-experimental design employed in this study allowed comparisons of students’ math and composite reading scores between OLPC and non-OLPC schools and between 2008 and 2012 studies. In this way, it was possible to detect net difference in students’ math and reading scores between XO and non-XO schools adjusting for initial difference in 2008 and compare over-time progress in two groups. In order to see if there was any initial difference in students’ math and reading scores, national achievement test (NAT) results of 2008 for the schools covered by this study were isolated from entire data set of 2008 NAT. Then, the average math and reading scores were calculated and T-test for independent samples was conducted between OLPC and non-OLPC schools.

3. Findings

There are six major findings from this study. First, there was a statistically significant initial difference in math score between OLPC and non-OLPC schools. However, there was no initial difference in students’ reading scores. Second, in terms of the comparison of test scores between 2008 and 2012, both math and reading scores increased significantly in 2012 compared to 2008 in both OLPC and non OLPC groups. However, for OLPC group reading scores increased at much higher rate than non-OLPC group. Third, there was a statistically significant difference in reading score in 2012 between OLPC and non-OLPC groups. Reading scores of OLPC group exceeded non-OLPC by 3.72 points. Fourth, after adjustment of the scores by initial difference between OLPC and non-OLPC groups, there was no difference in students’ math scores between OLPC and non-OLPC groups. Fifth, net advantage of OLPC group over non-OLPC group in reading score was 3.75 points. This means that those who used XO computers gained 17% advantage over the average reading score of 2008. Sixth, multivariate regression analysis suggests that the use of XO computers may enhance students reading ability controlling for student’s gender, math scores, and hours spent for watching TV, doing homework and earning money.

In conclusion, the findings of our study contribute to the body of research that shows positive effect of using XO computers on students’ academic achievement. This study for the first time points out that the use of XO computers may enhance students reading ability controlling for students gender, math scores, and hours spent for watching TV, doing homework and earning money.

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Thesis

List of Journal Publications and Conference Proceedings

• • Li, S., Yamaguchi, S., and Takada, J., “The Influence of Interactive Learning Materials on Self-Regulated Learning and Learning Satisfaction of Primary School Teachers in Mongolia”, Sustainability 2018, 10, 1093. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041093 (2018)
  • Li, S., Yamaguchi, S., & Takada, J. (2018, April 29). Understanding factors affecting primary school teachers’ use of ICT for student-centered education in Mongolia. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT [Online], 14(1). Available: http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=2381. (2018)
  • Ohya, Y., Orgilmaa, L., Yamaguchi, S., and Takada, J., “Factors affecting Mongolian primary school leaders’ attitudes toward ICT in education”, Paper presented at 61st Annual Conference of Comparative and International Education Society, Atlanta, U.S. (March, 2017)
  • Yamamoto, Y., Enomoto, N., & Yamaguchi, S., Policies and Practices of School Leadership in Japan: A case of Leadership Development Strategies in Akita. Journal of Educational Considerations. 43 (3). 27-36. (2017)
  • Yamaguchi, S., Sukhbaatar, J., Takada, J., and Dayan-Ochir, K., “The Effect of Using XO Computers on Students’ Mathematics and Reading Abilities: Evidence from Learning Achievement Tests conducted in Primary Education Schools in Mongolia”,  International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology, Vol. 10, Issue 2, pp. 89-102, (2014)
  • Tsogtsaikhan, O., Yamaguchi, S., and Takada, J., “Factors affecting Information Communication Technology (ICT) skills of primary school teachers in Mongolia”, Proceedings of the 58th Annual Conference on Japan Comparative Education Society, p195, Tokyo, Japan. (June, 2014)
  • Tsogtsaikhan, O., Yamaguchi, S., and Takada, J., “Measuring ICT skills of primary school teachers: instrument development in Mongolia”, Proceedings of 58th Annual Conference on Comparative and International Education Society, CD-Rom, Toronto, Canada. (March, 2014)
  • Tsogtsaikhan, O., Yamaguchi, S., and Takada, J., “Development of Instrument to measure ICT skills of primary school teachers in Mongolia”, Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference of the Japan Society for International Development, P.126, Osaka, Japan. (November, 2013)
  • Luvsandash, O., Yano, S., Sergelen, I., Yamaguchi, S., Takada. J., “Analysis on ICT use to promote Student Centered Approach: Case of Scratch software program“, Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the Japan Society for International Development, pp.31-34, Kobe, Japan. (December, 2012)